Leo

006.putty使用方法

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sat, 14 Nov 2009 06:23:44 GMT

大致内容罗列如下：

最简单的使用，登录 SSH 主机

中文乱码的处理

PuTTY 常用配置的说明

复制、粘贴

保存会话

注销

自动登录用户名

自动设置环境变量

设置代理服务器

自动执行命令

备份、删除 PuTTY 的设置

PuTTY 的 X11 转发

如何用 PuTTY 建立 SSH 隧道

如何用 PuTTY 建立反向的 SSH 隧道，像个特洛伊木马一样突破防火墙

把 PuTTY 作为一个安全的代理服务器

安全的上网不被嗅探

避免 MSN 等聊天工具被监听

怎样用 PSCP、PSFTP 安全的传输文件

功能强大的 SFTP 客户端 WinSCP

用 PuTTYgen 生成密钥，登录 SSH 主机不再需要口令

Pagent 代理密钥，每次开机只需要输入一次密钥口令

Plink 简单而又迅速的执行 SSH 主机上的程序

常见问题

除了上面的这些，还夹杂了一些 PuTTY 使用上的技巧、服务器配置的一些安全建议。说起来这是一些有关 PuTTY 的使用教程，其实也就是 SSH 的参考教程，绝大多数的内容在其他系统或软件上也都是一样的。不同的是参数、配置、命令行之类的，只要会了一个，其他也就触类旁通了。
如果你已经知道 SSH、Telnet、Rlogin 这是什么，就跳过这一部分，看下面的吧。
(以后补充，暂时空下)
PuTTY 的官方网站：http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/，截止到 2007年6月，发布的最高稳定版本是 0.6。
PuTTY 是一个跨平台的远程登录工具，包含了一组程序，包括：

PuTTY (Telnet 和 SSH 客户端)

PSCP (SCP 客户端, 命令行下通过 SSH 拷贝文件，类似于 Unix/Linux 下的 scp 命令)

PSFTP (SFTP 的命令行客户端，类似于 FTP 的文件传输，只不过使用的是 SSH 的 22 端口，而非 FTP 的 21 端口，类似于 Unix/Linux 下的 sftp 命令)

PuTTYtel (仅仅是一个 Telnet 客户端)

Plink (命令行工具，执行远程服务器上的命令)

Pageant (PuTTY、PSCP、Plink 的 SSH 认证代理，用这个可以不用每次都输入口令了)

PuTTYgen (用来生成 RSA 和 DSA 密钥的工具).

虽然包含了这么多，但平时经常见到只是用 PuTTY 登录服务器，完全没有发挥出 PuTTY 的强大功能。
PuTTY 作为一个组件也存在于很多的软件中，比如 FileZilla、WinSCP
在后面的文字中，如非特别说明，默认的登录的协议是 SSH。毕竟用 PuTTY 主要就是登录 SSH 主机，用 Telnet、RLogin 没法体现出 PuTTY 的强大功能。
下载页面在这里：http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/download.html
PuTTY 需要安装么？需要么？需要么？真的需要么？不需要。PuTTY 是一个准绿色软件，说它绿色是因为直接就能使用，完全没有任何的安装程序。准绿色是指 PuTTY 的所有配置都保存到了注册表，如果不记得备份注册表中的相关内容，下次重装机器所有配置就没了，而且配置也不方便用闪存盘随身携带。但是 PuTTY 的配置删除还是蛮方便的，运行时指定个参数 -cleanup 就可以清除 PuTTY 的所有配置信息。
运行 PuTTY 就可以看到下面这个界面

在这里输入服务器的 IP 或主机名，选择好登录协议，还有协议的端口，如果希望把这次的输入保存起来，以后就不需要再重新输入了，就在第4步输入好会话保存的名称，比如：mail-server，或者干脆就是主机的地址，点击保存就可以了。

最后点下面的 Open 按钮，输入正确的用户名和口令，就可以登录服务器了。
第一次登录时，会看到这个对话框

这是要告诉你登录的主机密钥指纹，点 Yes 就保存起来，以后就不会再弹出这个窗口，然后就正常登录。点 No 不保存，下次还是要提示你，然后也可以正常登录。如果一台主机我们只是临时登录一下，当然就是点 No 了。Cancel 就是取消，也就是取消了这次登录。
如果你曾经登录过这台主机，但是又弹出来这个对话框，可能有以下几种情形：

主机重新安装了操作系统

这台主机可能有多个IP，这次用的是另外一个 IP

有其他不怀好意的主机来冒充，诱骗我们登录，窃取隐秘信息

前两个情形很常见，一般点 Yes 就行了。后面这个嘛……唔……唔……，点 No/Cancel，再去询问相关的主机管理人员。
成功登录主机后，输入命令，这……这……显示，又是乱码。唉，中文乱码是一个老生常谈的问题，提起来就头大。原因嘛，不外乎字符集、终端编码之类的，还是可以解决的。

PuTTY 的默认字体和字符集并不适合中文显示，在窗口标题上点击右键，选择 Change Settings...

在打开的配置窗口左边选择 Appearance，在右边点 Font settings 里面的 Change 按钮，选择好中文字体，比如：宋体、新宋体之类的

字体选择好了，还要确定字符集。
选择配置窗口左边的 Translation，在右边的 Received data assumed to be in which character set 下拉列表中选择最后一个“Use font encoding”，最后点下面的 Apply 按钮就生效了。

重新执行命令 ls -l，就可以正常看到中文了

如果还是乱码的话，就执行以下命令，看看系统的字符集
echo $LANG $LANGUAGE

哦，原来系统的字符集是 UTF-8 呀。重新返回上面选择字符集的那一步，选择配置窗口左边的 Translation，在右边的 Received data assumed to be in which character set 下拉列表中选择“UTF-8”

这下99%的情形下，汉字是不会有乱码了。最后，总之一下 PuTTY 中乱码的解决办法：
先看看系统的字符集，如果是 UTF-8 的，那就简单了，选择好中文字体，然后编码选择 UTF-8 就行了。
如果编码是 GB2312、GBK、GB18030，当然也包括 BIG5这些，在 PuTTY 的编码选择中看不到这些编码，那就选择最后一个“Use font encoding”，绝大部分情况下这样就没啥问题了，反正我是没碰到有什么例外的情况。
现在的 Linux 如果默认语言选择为中文，默认的编码就是 UTF-8 了。以前安装 Redhat AS 3 时，语言选择为中文，默认的编码是 zh_CN.gb2312, zh_CN.gb18030，好像从 AS 3 update 6 开始，包括现在的 AS4、AS5，中文的默认编码都成了 zh_CN.utf8。至于 Debian、Ubuntu 等等这些上面，好像一直都是 UTF-8。
至于是使用 UTF-8呢，还是用 GB2312、GBK 或者 GB18030呢？我个人还是倾向于 UTF-8。毕竟我们使用的大多数软件都是国外的，处理中文编码多多少少有些问题，PuTTY 自然也不例外。
下面的这个图上，我把终端编码修改为 zh_CN.utf8，然后也按照前面的所说的方法把 PuTTY 的字符集修改为 UTF-8。然后在终端中输入汉字“柴锋”，按左方向键，可以看到汉字显示很正常。

我重新把终端的编码修改为 zh_CN.gb2312，同样的，把 PuTTY 的字符集修改为最后一个“Use font encoding”。还是在终端上输入汉字“柴锋”，按下左方向键以后，会看到汉字乱码了。

至于用哪个编码，主要还是看领导的决定了，我们的领导就喜欢 GBK，连 GB18030 都不行。以前在用 Debian 的时候，好像默认都不支持 GBK 编码。这几年公司的开发在汉字编码问题上出过几次麻烦，还不就是在 ISO8859-1, GB2312/GBK/GB18030和UTF-8上折腾来折腾去。
给大家看一张 emacs 的截图，看看上面的这么多语言的文字共同显示，这个会是用 GB2312/GBK/GB18030 的编码么？

用 UTF-8 也不是为了要在一个屏幕上显示好几种不认识的文字，也不一定非要是跟国际接轨弄个外包给老外开发程序做个其他语言的界面让老外用，起码不要在那么多编码里折腾了，顶多两个 ISO8859-1 和 UTF-8。发发牢骚，下面继续……
在 PuTTY 的窗口里面复制、粘贴可不能用 Windows 里的这些 Ctrl C, Ctrl Ins, Ctrl V 这些快捷键，Ctrl C 在控制台上可是终止当前的命令执行。
PuTTY 的选择、复制、粘贴这些操作都是通过鼠标来完成的。
在 Window-〉Selection 这里可以设置复制和粘贴的方式。

默认的 Action of mouse buttons （鼠标按键的功能）的选项是 Compromise，这种方式下选中有两种方式，一是直接用鼠标左键拖拉选中就可以了，二是用鼠标中键单击选中区域的开头，用滚动条拖拉到期望选中区域的末尾，再用鼠标中键单击，就可以选中了。
选中以后，单击鼠标左键就把选中部分复制到剪贴板了。粘贴也很简单，单击鼠标右键。
Action of mouse buttons 的第一个选项是 Windows （Windows 方式的），鼠标中键的操作跟前面提到的一样。右键不是粘贴了，而是打开了右键菜单。

其实这个右键菜单在标题栏上点击，也都可以看得到。

第三个选项是 xterm （xterm 方式），这个跟默认的 Compromise 方式相反的，中键和右键的操作调换了一下，就不多说了。
下面那个 Shift overrides application's use of mouse 是和 Shift 键有关的。有些 Rogue Like 的程序，比如 mc、links、Lynx、VIM 等等，都支持鼠标操作，想在用鼠标在上面选择或粘贴就不行了。这个选项默认是选中的，在支持鼠标操作的 Rogue Like 界面下，按住 Shift 键，就可以像前面的那样用鼠标来选择、复制、粘贴了。
看下面的这个图片，用 Links 打开了 Google 的首页，用鼠标去选中顶部中间的 Google，我们会发现，弹出了保存的对话框。

按住 Shift 键重新操作一次，哈哈，这次选中了。

在 Control use of mouse 里面还有个 Default selection mode （默认的选择模式），默认是 Normal，就像文字处理工具里这样的选择

另外一个是 Rectangular block（块选择方式），至于用哪种方式就看自己的选择了。

这次更改配置参数了，关闭窗口后，下次使用还是要重新选择的，麻烦。
还是回到上面修改配置的哪个地方，选择左边的 Session，在右边选择要覆盖的会话名称，或者重新输入一个新的名称，点击 Save 按钮保存。

成功登录主机后，也能正常看到中文了。这样，我们就可以完成大部分的工作。最后要关闭窗口了，该怎么办呢？我见过很多人，包括我们公司负责专职维护的同事，都是直接点击窗口上的关闭按钮，完全没有理会弹出警告窗口，直接点击了 Yes。

这样做是不对的，首先这不是正确的注销方式，应该输入命令 exit 来正常注销；其次直接关闭窗口后，你的登录其实还在服务器上，如果一连多次的这样强制关闭窗口，用命令 w 或者 who 命令查看时，可以看到很多的用户还在系统上登录，占用了系统的资源。最重要的是，你的这次登录可能只是为了启动一下 WebLogic 或者其他什么应用服务器，直接关闭窗口后，可能会导致你的业务在随后的几分钟内也被终止，这应该不是你所希望看到的吧。
如果上述的理由是每次要输入 exit 然后回车，比较麻烦。你可以用快捷键 Ctrl d 来注销登录，一般情况下，快捷键一按窗口都直接关闭了，还省了两次鼠标点击。
在前面说道保存会话时，大家或许也注意到，下面有个 Close window on exit 有三个选项：

Always （不管怎样，窗口总是要关闭的）

Never （无论是否有程序还在运行，都不要关闭窗口）

Only on clear exit （这个是默认选中的，只有在本次登录中运行的程序都正常终止或者在后台运行，窗口才关闭）

有的程序在执行时，虽然在命令最后面加上 “&”就能放到后台运行。但是正常注销登录后，窗口没有被自动关闭，还能看到程序的输出，这时强制关闭窗口还是可以的。为了避免这种情形，可以使用 nohup 命令。
用法嘛就是： nohup 命令命令参数，这样就可以了。
执行了一个命令，输出了好多东西，但是默认的配置下，PuTTY只保存了最后200行的内容，满足不了我们的需求

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转载自http://21pt.com/Article/69.aspx

[转]SCI我们心中的永远的疼——一年三篇IF大于7经验谈

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sun, 08 Nov 2009 05:54:40 GMT

一、研究生必备四本
俗话说好记性不如烂笔头，所以一定要首先养成做笔记的好习惯！作为研究生下面这几个本子是必不可少的
1，实验记录本（包括试验准备本），这当然首当其冲必不可少，我就不多说了；
2，Idea记录本，每次看文献对自己有用的东西先记下，由此产生的idea更不能放过，这可是做研究的本钱，好记性不如烂笔头，以后翻翻会更有想法的；
3，专业概念以及理论进展记录本，每个人不可能对自己领域的概念都了如指掌，初入门者更是如此，这时候小小一个本子的作用就大了；
4，讲座记录本，这本本子可能有些零杂，记录听到的内容，更要记录瞬间的灵感，以及不懂的地方，不可小视！
这四本是你必不可少的，不过作为我们这些非英语专业的研究生来说，还有一个应该具备的本子就是英语好句记录本。
二、论文写作要点
1、选题要小，开掘要深；不要题目很大，内容却很单薄。
2、写作前要读好书、翻阅大量资料、注意学术积累，在这个过程中，还要注重利用网络，特别是一些专业数据库
3、“选题新、方法新、资料新”的三新原则（老板教导的）
4、“新题新做”和“小题大做
总之，一点之见即成文。
三、如何撰写实验研究论文（唐朝枢）
论文发表意识：基础研究成果的表达方式；是否急于发表（创新与严谨的关系）；发表的论文与学位论文的区别（反映科学事实而不是反映作者水平）
论文格式：原著、快报、简报、摘要。不同于教科书、讲义，更不同于工作总结。
撰写前的准备工作：复习和准备好相关文献;再次审定实验目的(学术思想,Idea);实验资料完整并再次审核
1.Introduction:
问题的提出；研究的现状及背景；以前工作基础；本工作的目的；思路（可提假说）；对象；方法；结果。在… 模型上，观察 … 指标，以探讨 … （目的）
2. M & M
⑴ 材料的写法和意义; 伦理.
⑵ 程序与指标。操作程序：能序贯，可操作性；方法：多指标方法的排序；引出参照文献简述;改良之处；哪些详或简？⑶ 统计学处理
3. Results
⑴指标归类描述，忌流水帐。不分析不解释，但要体现思路
⑵ 文字、图、表相对独立，但避免重复
⑶ 避免统计错误：对照，均衡，随即，重复。计量-计数、绝对值-相对值、专一指标—综合指标的转换。盲判与非盲判。技术资料直接概率法与卡方检验；多组资料与两组资料；等级相关与直线相关；多因素与单因素分析；配对资料与独立样本资料；非正态分布资料；例数不当；平行管，混合样本；突出差异（绝对值， Δ值，变化％；联合×、÷比值，分亚组等）有效位数的保留。统计学结论与专业结论。
4. Discussion
⑴ 背景材料：展开问题的提出；有关本研究的一些基本知识内容（不要离题太远）
⑵ 本实验结果分析：各指标的意义（与文献值比较），结果说明什么问题
⑶ 进一步对结果机理分析：结合文献
⑷ 本工作的意义、结语或小结，进一步提出的新问题
其它注意点：
① 引证讨论文献知识太多(不同于学位论文)，掩盖了本工作的贡献
② 分析不合逻辑，结论不当
③ 讨论太浮浅，文献知识不熟悉
④ 写成工作总结，缺乏学术高度
⑤ 要正确使用缩写词，尤其是组别缩写词
5. 参考文献：为什么要引文献
⑴ 立论依据的文献：新,权威性文献，不用快报或摘要
⑵ 自己工作的自引：工作连续性
⑶ 实验结果与文献资料比较：新，可用快报, 会议及个人咨询资料
⑷ 方法学：经典文献,注意引文准确，不要转引
6. 摘要：
问题的提出（Background）；本工作目的；对象；方法（指标，分组）；主要结果（数据，统计）；结论与展望
7.再推敲文章题目：不切题，过大、过小
8.投稿：按杂志稿约修定（留底）.引用该杂志文章.忌一稿两投
9.致命伤:目的不明确;重复性工作无创新;方法学问题致结果不可信.临床研究:伦理;病例和对照选择;临床关系充分分析
四、如何写好论文讨论部分：科学论文的讨论需要结构化
建议科学论文讨论部分使用的结构：陈述主要发现，本研究的长处和短处、同其它研究比较的长处和短处；特别要讨论结果中的差别、研究的意义、未解答的问题及今后的研究方向
讨论一开始要重新说明主要发现，用一个句子表示较为理想。接着全面说明本研究的长处和短处，两者不可偏废。实际上，编辑和读者最注意研究的短处，这是所有医学研究不可避免的。编辑和读者一旦发现研究的短处，而作者未加讨论，他们对文章的信任会发生动摇，心生疑窦：是否还有他们和作者都未发现的其它弱点呢？
　　其次，将该研究与以前的工作联系起来，不炫耀自己的工作比以前的工作如何好，而是比较其优劣。与其它研究进行对照，切忌将自己的缺陷掩盖起来。重要的是应该讨论为什么会得出不同于别人的结论，作者可以放开去推测；但是如果弄不清自己的研究结果为什么与别人的结果有差别，就不便作这种推测，也不该断言自已的研究结果正确，而别人的错误。
　　接着应该讨论自己的研究“表明”什么，如何解释自己的研究发现，以及对临床医生或决策者有什么意义？此刻，作者的境地是危险的，多数编辑和读者能够理解作者的谨慎，不逾实证界限。由读者自己去判断研究的意义：他们是会做到的。作者甚至可以指出研究结果证明不了什么，防止读者得出过度、不实的结论。最后，应点明哪些问题尚未解答，以及要继续做的工作。显然，编辑和读者不喜欢夸大的作法。事实上，作者对论文的这一部分常常写得乱糟糟的。虽然无法阻止作者写一篇充满推测的文章，但切不可因推测而毁了证据。
　　讨论部分有时也许需要别的小标题，但我们以为，现在提出的结构适合大多数研究论文。尽管统一结构有难度，甚至受限制，我们相信这种结构会降低总的文字长度，防止不恰当的推测和重复，减少报道偏差，提高报道的总体质量。这种设想是完全经得起检验的。我们欢迎BMJ的作者和读者发表观点，如果反映好，我们将使用结构式讨论。
五、关于写英文文章的秘诀
我老板平均每个毕业的博士都有6篇以上的SCI，他从来不强求学生发文章，只教如何做研究。下面的问题，他只和我说过一次，之后我的行动与之不相符就会被骂。现在成了习惯来这样思考，做事，发现真是事半功倍。
1. 你在做研究之前，想过结果能不能发表没有？往哪里发？
2. 写文章的高手是先把文章大框写好，空出数据来，等做完实验，填完空就可以发了。正谓心中有沟壑。
3. 在想不清楚要写什么，要发到哪里去，自己做的与同行做的有什么出色之处，之前，就不要动手做事。去看文献，去想。想不清楚就做，不如不做
要想这样子做，就得先看文献不是？要知道如何把文章架起来，要知道别人是如何讨论的，要知道你自己的数据是不是说明了与别人不一样的东东或别人没有做过。这个过程就是看文献，想的过程，这些搞清楚了，写就简单了。要是先做事，做完发现别人做过，或无法用理论解释，岂不是冤大头？
六、写论文的技巧
优秀论文的要素：1、正确选题；2、合适的切入点；3、简洁明了；4、说清自己的贡献；
5、可靠的/可重现的结果；6、可重复的过程；7、好的文章结构和逻辑流程；8、精选的参考文献
优秀论文的误区：1、Idea越多越好；2、一味追求革命性的，突破性的成果；3、数学、理论和公式越复杂越好——显示自己的聪明；4、追求最好，史无前例；5、显示权威性，引文中大量引用自己的论文。
写文章的条件：1、与研究工作相关，确实有了好的想法，不是为了写而写；2、取得了有价值的成果，对学术界有贡献；3、实验成熟，经得起检验；4、已经需要记录下来和其他人分享
写论文的要点：1、写出3~4层的纲要反复修改多次。2、从Introduction开写，回顾已有的工作。3、要声明文章结构，不要直接进入细节。4、声明工作的动机和基本原理，提出潜在的问题，自己进行回答。5、讲明自己工作与前人的不同，说明自己的贡献及其实际应用前景。6、最后写Summary和Abstract，反复斟酌后确定标题。
Reviewer Check List: 1、论文是否提出了一个新的问题或者给出了已有问题的一个新的解决方案。2、论文的主要结果是什么？3、实验结果是否充分？4、论文技术含量如何？
5、论文是否对所提出的技术/结果的有效性和局限性进行了评价？6、论文写作是否清晰，从而令本行业内多数研究人员可读？7、论文是否适当地引用和介绍了与之相关的历史文献？8、论文是否应该给予嘉奖？
IEEE Transactions on CSVT Review form: 1、在多大的程度上满足本期刊读者的兴趣？
2、论文所使用的方法的评价？3、结果是否具有新颖性？4、主要结果是否正确？5、论述是否清晰？6、是否具有一致性（前/后，论述/结果）？7、引文是否充足？8、Reviewer的意见：(Accept / Accept after a minor revision / Reject / Reject but resubmit after a major revision / Submit to another journal)。
七、论文写作技巧：
1、宣传自己——说明论文的重要性。流程：a）问题X是重要的；b）前人的工作A、B曾经研究过这个问题；c）A、B有一些缺陷；d）我们提出了方法D；e）对D进行实验，和A、B进行比较；f）实验证明D比A、B优越；g）解释为什么D是更优的，而其他的思路（比如E）是不行的；h）阐述D的有效性和局限性；i）对D进一步发展的讨论。要点：j）简洁最重要；k）不犯粗心的错误，仔细验证结果和适当选择用词。
2、细心修改。步骤：a）30%的时间细心思考，70%的时间认真写作初稿；b）把写好的论文放一段时间；c）逐字逐句地阅读论文；d）请其他人帮助阅读和修改；e）在修改的时候，从别人的角度来审视论文（Reviewer / boss / colleagues / proof-reader）；f）仔细修改的次数 > 3；修改的总次数 > 5。要点：g）自己读自己的论文很乏味，并且不易找到错误；h）为了论文的小的层次提升，要付出大量劳动。
3、优化英语。步骤：a）自顶向下地组织论文（大纲/逻辑/流程）；b）用其他的优秀论文（尤其是同期刊/同系列的论文，优秀书籍）作为范例；c）请别人帮满阅读和修改语法和用词；d）记录自己用词和语法的错误，进行积累。要点：e）用词和语法固然重要，但是结构和逻辑更加重要。
八、优秀论文结构范例：
1、Abstract—— 对自己工作及其贡献的总结：a）阐述问题；b）说明自己的解决方案和结果。
2、Introduction——背景，以及文章的大纲：a）题X是重要的；b）前人的工作A、B曾经研究过这个问题；c）A、B有一些缺陷；d）我们提出了方法D；e）D的基本特征，和A、B进行比较；f）实验证明D比A、B优越；g）文章的基本结构，大纲。
3、Previous Work——说明自己与前人的不同：a）将历史上前人的工作分成类别；b）对每项重要的历史工作进行简短的回顾(一到几句)，注意要回顾正确，抓住要点，避免歧义；c）和自己提出的工作进行比较；d）不要忽略前人的重要工作，要公正评价前人的工作，不要过于苛刻；e）强调自己的工作和前人工作的不同，最好举出各自适用例子。
4、Our Work——描述自己的工作，可分成多个部分：a）从读者角度阐明定义和表示法；b）提供算法的伪码，图解和相应解释；c）用设问的方式回答读者可能提出的潜在问题；d）复杂的冗长的证明和细节可以放在附录中，这里关键是把问题阐述清楚；e）特例和例外应该在脚注中给予说明。
5、Experiments——验证提出的方法和思路：a）合理地设计实验（简洁的实验和详尽的实验步骤）；b）必要的比较，突出科学性；c）讨论，说明结果的意义；d）给出结论。
6、Conclusion——总结、前景及结文：a）快速简短的总结；b）未来工作的展望；c）结束全文。
7、References——对相关重要背景文献的全面引用：a）选择引文（众所周知的结论不必引用，其他人的工作要引用）；b）与前文保持一致。
8、Others——致谢、附录、脚注。
处理被拒：1、理解被国际权威期刊拒稿是一件正常的事情(70%以上被拒)，保持良好心态。
2、感谢编辑和Reviewer的意见和工作。3、询问副主编，自己可以怎样处理这篇论文最合适(重投/改投/撤回)。4、继续新的研究或补充修改后改投其他杂志。
常见问题：1、是否可以一稿多投？千万不要！但是一篇会议论文经过修改以后可以再投期刊。2、是否可以建议副主编如何处理自己的论文呢？不行，但可建议他别让某人评阅。3、如4月都未收到副主编回复怎么办？写一封友好的询问信，别催得太紧，别找主编。4、如和副主编意见严重不和怎么办？可以找主编，但是别经常这样做。5、如果和主编的最终决定严重不和怎么办？没有办法了。

我是怎样的一个人？

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Wed, 04 Nov 2009 19:31:08 GMT

妈妈说：“大贞第一老实哒滴，要放狡猾点。”我也觉得我太过老实了。
爸爸说：“哪来楞们瘦啊，一天没吃饭曼？！”我也的确挺瘦的，的确没有吸毒。
老婆说：“你勒人真没得劲。”嗯，我承认我一点也不幽默。
妈妈说：“你出门在外莫跟别人闹矛盾哈！”嗯，高中的时候大闹了一回。
外婆说：“黄大贞一天像个妹仔。”嗯，性格很温和。

师兄说：“我觉得你适合出去混一下。”嗯，有时候我也这样觉得。
文发说：“大贞你不能这样优柔寡断。”我也很想自己决断点。
盛佳说：“你这人太好水了。”有时候就是这样的，被水的人总是我。
迪迪说：“大贞你老人痴呆吗？！”有时候我觉得我老了，记性很差。

小娟说：“大贞太好人了。”
笨鸡说：“大贞你最YD。”
施思说：“大贞外表平静，内心火热。”
小曹说：“大贞要学会拒绝别人啊。”
小亮说：“大贞对人都很好。”

师弟说：“乐于助人的人。”
师弟说：“大贞比较腼腆。”利川人都很腼腆。
师妹说啥了？。

掌柜说：“大贞性取向绝对有问题。”掌柜通常说完拉着我的手。
晶晶说：“大贞你是不是又脱离群众了？！”
老虎说：“大贞咱们下军棋吧。”
小徐说：“大贞你要继续努力，别浪费了。”

心悦说：“大贞缺乏主见，喜欢跟风。”
书记说：“大贞对人还是那么好。”其实我不知道我对人有多好。
庆姐说：“大贞就是一花心大萝卜。”
老婆说：“嗯，长得真难看。”
大贞说：“你看哥们多帅。”

社长说：“大贞真认真。”
文科说：“大贞就是个装B男。”其实我觉得小宝胜过我。
小宝说：“我们宿舍的社长说：小宝是个诗人。”
文科说：“师兄就喜欢装深沉。”

杰兄说：“大贞很讲义气。”
老六说：“对。”
新宇说：“大贞，听说你今天又猥琐了。”
皇甫说：“是，今天大贞笑得好YD。”
大贞说：“哥们看个笑话还不准笑了咋滴。”

娟说：“勒人真恶心，鄙视你！”
我说：“鄙视吧鄙视吧，我已经很鄙视我了。”
娟说：“Z Z真虚无缥缈。”
我说：“比如呢？”

媳妇说：“你勒人最好骗。”
嗯，是啊，已经被骗了那么多次了，吃一堑长一智。
媳妇说：“你勒人点都靠不住。”
有西里办法呢。

很傻很天真。我是怎样的一个人呢？

那么复杂啊

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Wed, 04 Nov 2009 18:12:14 GMT

　　每次，心里都那么落寞，唉，为啥呢？
那时候的我，真的好天真，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，似乎很陶醉，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，一直很自恋，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，似乎很猥琐，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，却不是现在的我。

　　每次，心里都那么孤单，唉，为啥呢？
那时候的我，似乎很开朗，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，真的很活跃，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，一直很开心，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，似乎很离谱，正如现在的我。
那时候的我，却不是现在的我。

　　每次，落寞爬上心头，我都知道：
那是我自我封闭的后果，我一直都这样。
那是我心里有太多寂寞，不能说的话语。
那是我心里的寂寞，没有找到向谁诉说。
那是我吐丝作茧，将自己一层层的包裹。
现在的我，被包得更紧。

　　每次，孤单侵袭着我，我都明白：
那是我真正的感觉，强烈的自我的感觉。
那是对冲动最好的惩罚。

005.History of Linux

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 11:20:33 GMT

History of Linux
version 2.2.0 by
Ragib Hasan
Department of Computer Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Table of Contents
a. In The Beginningb. New Baby in the horizonc. Confrontation and developmentd. A Decade of Linuxe. Tux: The Spirit of Linuxf. Some Linux Cookiesg. Timelineh. Linksi. Acknowledgments
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++a. In The Beginning
　　It was 1991, and the ruthless agonies of the cold war were gradually coming to an end. There was an air of peace and tranquility that prevailed in the horizon. In the field of computing, a great future seemed to be in the offing, as powerful hardware pushed the limits of the computers beyond what anyone expected.
　　But still, something was missing. 　　And it was the none other than the Operating Systems, where a great void seemed to have appeared. 　　For one thing, DOS was still reigning supreme in its vast empire of personal computers. Bought by Bill Gates from a Seattle hacker for $50,000, the bare bones operating system had sneaked into every corner of the world by virtue of a clever marketing strategy. PC users had no other choice. Apple Macs were better, but with astronomical prices that nobody could afford, they remained a horizon away from the eager millions.
　　The other dedicated camp of computing was the Unixworld. But Unix itself was far more expensive. In quest of big money, the Unix vendors priced it high enough to ensure small PC users stayed away from it. The source code of Unix, once taught in universities courtesy of Bell Labs, was now cautiously guarded and not published publicly. To add to the frustration of PC users worldwide, the big players in the software market failed to provide an efficient solution to this problem.
　　A solution seemed to appear in form of MINIX. It was written from scratch by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, a US-born Dutch professor who wanted to teach his students the inner workings of a real operating system. It was designed to run on the Intel 8086 microprocessors that had flooded the world market.
　　As an operating system, MINIX was not a superb one. But it had the advantage that the source code was available. Anyone who happened to get the book 'Operating Systems: Design and Implementation' by Tanenbaum could get hold of the 12,000 lines of code, written in C and assembly language. For the first time, an aspiring programmer or hacker could read the source codes of the operating system, which to that time the software vendors had guarded vigorously. A superb author, Tanenbaum captivated the brightest minds of computer science with the elaborate and immaculately lively discussion of the art of creating a working operating system. Students of Computer Science all over the world pored over the book, reading through the codes to understand the very system that runs their computer. And one of them was Linus Torvalds.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
b. New Baby in the Horizon

　　In 1991, Linus Benedict Torvalds was a second year student of Computer Science at the University of Helsinki and a self-taught hacker. The 21 year old sandy haired soft-spoken Finn loved to tinker with the power of the computers and the limits to which the system can be pushed. But all that was lacking was an operating system that could meet the demands of the professionals. MINIX was good, but still it was simply an operating system for the students, designed as a teaching tool rather than an industry strength one.
　　At that time, programmers worldwide were greatly inspired by the GNU project by Richard Stallman, a software movement to provide free and quality software. Revered as a cult hero in the realm of computing, Stallman started his awesome career in the famous Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT, and during the mid and late seventies, created the Emacs editor. In the early eighties, commercial software companies lured away much of the brilliant programmers of the AI lab, and negotiated stringent nondisclosure agreements to protect their secrets. But Stallman had a different vision. His idea was that unlike other products, software should be free from restrictions against copying or modification in order to make better and efficient computer programs. With his famous 1983 manifesto that declared the beginnings of the GNU project, he started a movement to create and distribute softwares that conveyed his philosophy (Incidentally, the name GNU is a recursive acronym which actually stands for 'GNU is Not Unix'). But to achieve this dream of ultimately creating a free operating system, he needed to create the tools first. So, beginning in 1984, Stallman started writing the GNU C Compiler(GCC), an amazing feat for an individual programmer. With his legendary technical wizardry, he alone outclassed entire groups of programmers from commercial software vendors in creating GCC, considered as one of the most efficient and robust compilers ever created.
　　By 1991, the GNU project created a lot of the tools. The much awaited Gnu C compiler was available by then, but there was still no operating system. Even MINIX had to be licensed.(Later, in April 2000, Tanenbaum released Minix under the BSD License.) Work was going the GNU kernel HURD, but that was not supposed to come out within a few years. That was too much of a delay for Linus. 　　In August 25, 1991 the historic post was sent to the MINIX news group by Linus .....
From: torvalds@klaava.Helsinki.FI (Linus Benedict Torvalds)
Newsgroups: comp.os.minix
Subject: What would you like to see most in minix?
Summary: small poll for my new operating system
Message-ID: <1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI>
Date: 25 Aug 91 20:57:08 GMT
Organization: University of Helsinki Hello everybody out there using minix -
I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and
professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has been brewing
since april, and is starting to get ready.I'd like any feedback on
things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat
(same physical layout of the file-system(due to practical reasons)
among other things). I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40),and
things seem to work.This implies that I'll get something practical within a
few months, andI'd like to know what features most people would want. Any
suggestions are welcome, but I won't promise I'll implement them :-)
Linus (torvalds@kruuna.helsinki.fi)
PS. Yes - it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs.
It is NOT protable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never
will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's
all I have :-(.
　　As it is apparent from the posting, Linus himself didn't believe that his creation was going to be big enough to change computing forever. Linux version 0.01 was released by mid September 1991, and was put on the net. Enthusiasm gathered around this new kid on the block, and codes were downloaded, tested, tweaked, and returned to Linus. 0.02 came on October 5th, along with this famous declaration from Linus:
From: torvalds@klaava.Helsinki.FI (Linus Benedict Torvalds)
Newsgroups: comp.os.minix
Subject: Free minix-like kernel sources for 386-AT
Message-ID: <1991Oct5.054106.4647@klaava.Helsinki.FI>
Date: 5 Oct 91 05:41:06 GMT
Organization: University of Helsinki
Do you pine for the nice days of minix-1.1, when men were men and wrote their own device drivers?
Are you without a nice project and just dying to cut your teeth on a OS you can try to modify for your
needs? Are you finding it frustrating when everything works on minix? No more all-nighters to get a nifty program working? Then this post might be just for you :-)
As I mentioned a month(?)ago, I'm working on a free version of a minix-lookalike for AT-386 computers. It has
finally reached the stage where it's even usable (though may not be depending on
what you want), and I am willing to put out the sources for wider distribution. It is just version 0.02 (+1 (very
small) patch already), but I've successfully run bash/gcc/gnu-make/gnu-sed/compress etc under it.
Sources for this pet project of mine can be found at nic.funet.fi (128.214.6.100) in the directory /pub/OS/Linux.
The directory also contains some README-file and a couple of binaries to work under linux
(bash, update and gcc, what more can you ask for :-). Full kernel source is provided, as no minix code has been
used. Library sources are only partially free, so that cannot be distributed currently. The system is able to compile
"as-is" and has been known to work. Heh. Sources to the binaries (bash and gcc) can be found at the
same place in /pub/gnu.
　　Linux version 0.03 came in a few weeks. By December came version 0.10. Still Linux was little more than in skeletal form. It had only support for AT hard disks, had no login ( booted directly to bash). version 0.11 was much better with support for multilingual keyboards, floppy disk drivers, support for VGA,EGA, Hercules etc. The version numbers went directly from 0.12 to 0.95 and 0.96 and so on. Soon the code went worldwide via ftp sites at Finland and elsewhere.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++c. Confrontation & Development
　　Soon Linus faced some confrontation from none other than Andrew Tanenbaum, the great teacher who wrote MINIX. In a post to Linus, Tanenbaum commented:
"I still maintain the point that designing a monolithic kernel in 1991 is a fundamental error. Be thankful you are not my student. You would not get a high grade for such a design :-)"
(Andrew Tanenbaum to Linus Torvalds)
　　Linus later admitted that it was the worst point of his development of Linux. Tanenbaum was certainly the famous professor, and anything he said certainly mattered. But he was wrong with Linux, for Linus was one stubborn guy who won't admit defeat.
　　Tanenbaum also remarked that : "Linux is obsolete".
　　Now was the turn for the new Linux generation. Backed by the strong Linux community, Linus gave a reply to Tanenbaum which seems to be most fitting:
Your job is being a professor and researcher: That's one hell of a good excuse for some of the brain-damages of minix.
(Linus Torvalds to Andrew Tanenbaum)
　　And work went on. Soon more than a hundred people joined the Linux camp. Then thousands. Then hundreds of thousands. This was no longer a hackers toy. Powered by a plethora of programs from the GNU project, Linux was ready for the actual showdown. It was licensed under GNU General Public License, thus ensuring that the source codes will be free for all to copy, study and to change. Students and computer programmers grabbed it.
　　Soon, commercial vendors moved in. Linux itself was, and is free. What the vendors did was to compile up various software and gather them in a distributable format, more like the other operating systems with which people were more familiar. Red Hat , Caldera, and some other companies gained substantial amount of response from the users worldwide. While these were commercial ventures, dedicated computer programmers created their very own volunteer-based distribution, the famed Debian. With the new Graphical User Interfaces (like X-window System, KDE, GNOME)the Linux distributions became very popular.
　　Meanwhile, there were amazing things happening with Linux. Besides the PC, Linux was ported to many different platforms. Linux was tweaked to run 3Com's handheld PalmPilot computer. Clustering technology enabled large number of Linux machines to be combined into a single computing entity, a parallel computer. In April 1996, researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory used Linux to run 68 PCs as a single parallel processing machine to simulate atomic shock waves. But unlike other Supercomputers costing a fortune, it was rather cheap. The do-it-yourself supercomputer cost only $152,000, including labor (connecting the 68 PCs with cables)-about one tenth the price of a comparable commercial machine. It reached a peak speed of 19 billion calculations per second, making it the 315th most powerful supercomputer in the world. And it was a robust one too. Three months later it still didn't have to be rebooted.
　　The best thing about Linux today is the fanatic following it commands. Whenever a new piece of hardware is out, Linux kernel is tweaked to take advantage of it. For example, within weeks after the introduction of Intel Xeon® Microprocessor, Linux kernel was tweaked and was ready for it. It has also been adapted for use in Alpha, Mac, PowerPC, and even for palmtops, a feat which is hardly matched by any other operating system. And it continues its journey into the new millennium, with the same enthusiasm that started one fine day back in 1991.
　　As for Linus, he remains a simple man. Unlike Bill Gates, he is not a billionaire. Having completed studies, he moved to USA and landed a job at Transmeta Corporation. After conducting a top-secret research and development project, Transmeta launched the Crusoeâ„¢ processor. Linus was an active member of the research team. Recently married to Tove, he is the proud father of a girl, Patricia Miranda Torvalds. But he remains as the world's most favorite and most famous programmer to this date. Revered by Computer communities worldwide, Linus is by far the most popular programmer on this planet.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++d. After a Decade: Linux Today

　　Proving all the warning and prophecies of the skeptics wrong, Linux has completed a decade of development. Today, Linux is one of the fastest growing operating systems in the history. From a few dedicated fanatics in 1991-92 to millions of general users at present, it is certainly a remarkable journey. The big businesses have 'discovered' Linux, and have poured millions of dollars into the development effort, denouncing the anti-business myth of the open-source movement. IBM corp. once considered the archenemy of open-source hacker community, has come forward with a huge fund for development of open source Linux based solutions. But what's really amazing is the continuously increasing band of developers spread throughout the world who work with a fervent zeal to improve upon the features of Linux. The development effort is not, as many closed-sourced advocates accuse, totally engulfed with chaos. A well designed development model supervised by some maintainers is adopted. Along with this, there are thousands of developers working to port various applications to Linux.
　　Commercial enterprises are no longer wary of Linux. With a large number of vendors providing support for Linux based products, it is no longer a 'do-at-your-own-risk' thing to use Linux at the office. As for reliability, Linux certainly proved it during the nasty attacks of the CIH virus in 1999 and the love bug a year later, during which Linux based machines proved to be immune to the damages caused by these otherwise quite simple computer viruses. Linux startups like Red Hat received a cordial response as they went public. And even after the dot-com bust of the recent years, these companies continue to thrive and grow. With this added confidence, many large and small businesses have adopted Linux based servers and workstations as an integral part of their offices.
Rise of the Desktop Linux
　　What is the biggest complain against Linux? Perhaps in the past, it was the text based interface which scared off many people from using it. 'Text mode gives total control', some dedicated hackers and heavy users may explain. But for the millions of ordinary people, it also means a lot of effort towards learning the system. The existing X-Window system and the window managers were not up to the general computer users' expectation. Exactly this argument had always been put forward by dedicated followers of the Windows(TM) camp. But things began to change in the last couple of years. The advent of professional looking desktop environments like KDE( K Desktop Environment) and GNOME completed the picture. The recent versions of these desktop environment have changed the general perception about the 'user friendliness' of Linux to a great extent. Though hard-core users grumble about the loss of purity of the hacker-culture, this great change in the mindset of the common users has increased the popularity of Linux.
　　Today, almost distributions of Linux include user-friendly GUIs. Installation has also become easier. Gone are the days when users would need detailed expertise in computer hardware to install Linux ... distributions like Ubuntu, Debian, Suse, Knoppix, and Red Hat's Fedora Core can be installed by even novice users. Most distributions are also available in Live CD format, which the users can just put in their CD drives and boot without installing it to the hard drive, making Linux available to the newbies.
Linux in the Developing World
　　Perhaps the greatest change is the spread of Linux to the developing world. In the days before Linux, developing countries were way behind in the field of computing. The cost of hardware fell down, but the cost of software was a huge burden to the cash-strapped computer enthusiasts of the Third World countries. In desperation, people resorted to piracy of almost all sorts of software products. This resulted in widespread piracy, amounting to billions of dollars. But then again, the pricetag of most of the commercial products were far beyond the reaches of the people in developing countries. For example, a typical operating system product costs at least US $100 or more. But in countries with per capita incomes of about US$200-300, is a huge amount.
　　The rise of Linux and other related open source product has changed it all. Since Linux can be scaled to run in almost computer with very few resources, it has become a suitable alternative for low budget computer users. Old, ancient 486/Pentium 1 computers that has become a part of history in the developed world are still used in developing countries. And Linux has enabled to unleash the full potential of these computers. The use of open source software has also proliferated, since the price of software is a big question. In countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, Linux has appeared as a way out for the masses of computer enthusiasts. And a testament to the true global nature of Linux, local customizations were made in obscure parts of the world. The Linux documentation now includes documents written in almost all the major languages ... and also many minor ones, for example, Vietnamese.
From Desktop to SuperComputing
　　When Linux was first envisaged by Linus Torvalds, it was just another hackers hobby. But from the humble Intel 386 machine of Linus that ran the first kernel, Linux has come a long way. Its most notable use now is in the field of massively parallel supercomputing clusters.
　　In August 2001, BBC reported that the US Government was planning to build what would be a mega computer, capable of performing over 13 trillion calculations per second (13.6 TeraFLOPS). The project, called Teragrid would consist of a connected network of 4 US supercomputing centers. The four labs that are collaborating to create the Teragrid are: National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois(NCSA), San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) at the University of California Argonne National Laboratory in Chicago; California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. At each of these centers, there would be a supercomputer. In total, there would be more than 3000 processors running in parallel to create the Tetragrid.
　　By 2005, the use of Linux became more prevalent in Supercomputing. The 2005 Top500 list of Supercomputers shows that 4 of the top 5 fastest supercomputers use Linux as their operating system.
The Journey Continues
　　The journey of Linux from a hacking project to globalization has been more like an evolutionary experience. The GNU Project, started in the early 1980's by Richard Stallman, laid the foundation for the development of open source software. Prof. Andrew Tanenbaum's Personal Computer operating system Minix brought the study of operating systems from a theoretical basis to a practical one. And finally, Linus Torvald's endless enthusiasm for perfection gave birth to Linux. Throughout the last couple of years, hundreds of thousands of people forming global community nurtured it and brought it to its glorious place in the annals of the computer revolution. Today Linux is not just another student's hacking project, it is a worldwide phenomenon bringing together huge companies like IBM and the countless millions of people throughout the world in the spirit of the open source software movement. In the history of computing, it will forever remain as one of the most amazing endeavors of human achievement.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++e. Tux the penguin: Linux's Dear Logo

　　The logo of Linux is a penguin. Unlike other commercial products of computer operating systems, Linux doesn't have a formidable serious looking symbol. Rather Tux, as the penguin is lovingly called, symbolizes the carefree attitude of the total movement. This cute logo has a very interesting history. As put forward by Linus, initially no logo was selected for Linux. Once Linus went to the southern hemisphere on a vacation. There he encountered a penguin, not unlike the current logo of Linux. As he tried to pat it, the penguin bit his hand. This amusing incident led to the selection of a penguin as the logo of Linux sometime later.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++f. Some Linux Cookies
　　Here are some famous words by Linus himself.
　　Dijkstra probably hates me
　　(Linus Torvalds, in kernel/sched.c)
　　"How should I know if it works? That's what beta testers are for. I only
　　coded it."
　　(Attributed to Linus Torvalds, somewhere in a posting)
　　"I'm an idiot.. At least this one [bug] took about 5 minutes to find.."
　　(Linus Torvalds in response to a bug report.)
　　"If you want to travel around the world and be invited to speak at a lot
　　of different places, just write a Unix operating system."
　　(By Linus Torvalds)
　　> > Other than the fact Linux has a cool name, could someone explain why I
　　> > should use Linux over BSD? 　　> No. That's it. The cool name, that is. We worked very hard on
　　> creating a name that would appeal to the majority of people, and it
　　> certainly paid off: thousands of people are using linux just to be able
　　> to say "OS/2? Hah. I've got Linux. What a cool name". 386BSD made the
　　> mistake of putting a lot of numbers and weird abbreviations into the
　　> name, and is scaring away a lot of people just because it sounds too
　　> technical.
　　(Linus Torvalds' follow-up to a question about Linux)
　　> The day people think linux would be better served by somebody else (FSF
　　> being the natural alternative), I'll "abdicate". I don't think that
　　> it's something people have to worry about right now - I don't see it
　　> happening in the near future. I enjoy doing linux, even though it does
　　> mean some work, and I haven't gotten any complaints (some almost timid
　　> reminders about a patch I have forgotten or ignored, but nothing
　　> negative so far).
　　
　　> Don't take the above to mean that I'll stop the day somebody complains:
　　> I'm thick-skinned (Lasu, who is reading this over my shoulder commented
　　> that "thickheaded is closer to the truth") enough to take some abuse.
　　> If I weren't, I'd have stopped developing linux the day ast ridiculed me
　　> on c.o.minix. What I mean is just that while linux has been my baby so
　　> far, I don't want to stand in the way if people want to make something
　　> better of it (*).
　　Linus
　　> (*) Hey, maybe I could apply for a saint-hood from the Pope. Does
　　> somebody know what his email-address is? I'm so nice it makes you puke.
　　(Taken from Linus's reply to someone worried about the future of Linux)
　　`When you say "I wrote a program that crashed Windows", people just stare at
　　you blankly and say "Hey, I got those with the system, *for free*".'
　　(By Linus Torvalds)
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++G. Timeline of Linux History

DateEvent1984January 1984Richard Stallman quits his job at MIT and starts working on the GNU Project.1985Month unknownFree Software Foundation, an organization for creating and promoting free software, is founded by Richard Stallman.March 1985The GNU manifesto, a statement by Richard Stallman advocating the cause of free software movement, is published in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal1991August 25 1991Linus conceives the idea of Linux and announces the project in a Usenet PostSeptember 1991Version 0.01 is released on the Net1992January 1992First Linux Newsgroup: alt.os.linux founded in the UseNetApril 1992Ari Lemmke starts the popular Linux newsgroup comp.os.linux in the UseNetNovember 1992Adam Richter announces the release of the first Linux Distribution from his company: Yggdrasil1993June 1993Slackware, the famous Linux distribution is released by Peter VolkerdingAugust 1993Matt Welsh releases Linux Installation and getting started: version 11994March 1994Linux kernel version 1.0 is released
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
H. Links
　　Here are some links on the history of Linux which you may find helpful.
www.linux.orgA website with help on Linux related issues.www.cs.helsinki.fi/u/torvaldsWeb site of Linus Torvalds ... contains some funny comments and photos of Linus Torvalds and his family. (Linus claims himself to be a www-illiterate :)www.slashdot.orgA website devoted to geeks and other tech-minded people. Contains some interesting contemporary and historical information on Linux and other free technologies.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinuxWikipedia article on Linuxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUWikipedia article on the GNU Project Sponsored links-->

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
I.Acknowledgments and Copyright
　　History is always boring, but history of Computing and that of Linux are very interesting. Much of the source of this article has been taken from the Internet. It was inspired by the questions asked by many would be Linux users at meetings and postings of Bangladesh Linux Users Group. Thanks to all.
　　All materials taken from various sources belong to their respective authors. All trademarks belong to the respective corporations and companies. Microsoft and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft corp.
　　This article is copyrighted by Ragib Hasan (1999+) and so all rights are reserved. But don't worry, Any part of this article can be reproduced in any form with prior permission of the author which can be obtained for FREE by e-mailing him. Please feel encouraged to spread the spirit of the open source software movement.

For all mistakes and suggestions, please contact me: Ragib HasanDepartment of Computer Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana, IL 61801
United States
mail me at ragibhasan aaaaht gmail daaawt com (You know what I mean ;) )
This article is available at http://www.ragibhasan.com/linux and http://netfiles.uiuc.edu/rhasan/linux
Last Updated: October 18, 2005
　　+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
　　+　　　　历史上的风云人物总是在各个要素达到共振的时候产生的　　　　+
　　+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

004.闲话操作系统

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 10:37:11 GMT

　　关于操作系统的定义，我没有找到一个权威的解释，基本上可以说，它是一个程序，一个介于计算机硬件和计算机用户/开发者之间的程序，用户通过它来操作计算机，开发者用它提供的接口来编写程序。操作系统大概可算是最重要（也可算是最复杂）的程序，基本上，它决定了我们能用电脑干什么和怎样用电脑，软件当然是千变万化，不断发展，但无论是在那一种操作系统下跑的软件，必然受限于操作系统所提供的功能，换句话说，它只能在操作系统划下的圈子里翻筋斗。
　　
　　第一代计算机是电子管（vacuum tube）计算机（大约1945~1959）是没有操作系统的，比如1945年问世的第一台电脑ENIAC，那玩意每秒只能做5000次加减法，连现在地摊上最廉价的计算器都不如，你给它写个操作系统，它也跑不动啊。所以那时操作电脑都是赤祼祼地跟主机打交道，要它干活，得一步步地按开关来告诉它（键盘是没有的，因为用的是机器语言，开关就够用了，后来出现了汇编语言，才出现打孔带这种输入方式），至于输出，它是靠两排小灯泡的闪烁来实现（跟眨眼睛差不多，闭着就是0，开着就是1，所以按照信息技术的理论，眉目岂止能传情，任何信息都可以通过眨眼睛来表达：）。蓝色巨人——IBM(国际商用机器公司)从这时就开始涉足计算机，在这个时代，他们推出的产品是700系列。
　　
　　第二代的计算机是晶体管（transistor）计算机（大约1959~1964），这个时代的计算机都是所谓的大型机，代表产品是IBM的1403机，运算能力比第一代快多了，达到了每秒几十~几百万次，这个数字看起来还不错，操作系统够简单的话，是可以跑得动的，操作系统也就是在这时候出现的（也有一种说法，说是在五十年代中期就出现了简单的操作系统，但没看到进一步的介绍，）。那时的大型机基本上是一种型号配一种操作系统，通用？没门。这时候的计算机工程师通常也是横跨硬、软件领域，非常的牛X，比如著名的CRAY巨型机，就是由Seymour Cray一手包办软硬件设计，让很多计算机FANS惊为天人，后来，苹果电脑横空出出世，Steven Wozniak也曾再现这种辉煌，这种包办一款电脑软硬件设计的壮举，搁现在，相信没人可以办到了。在文明发韧之初，类似情形比较常见，古希腊的那些大牛，亚力士多德什么的，都是学贯文理，很多领域都插上一杠子，往往还成了创始人，到了牛顿，虽然差点，文科基本没沾边（神学据说他钻研颇深，但成就如何不得而知），但在理科的好几个领域也是开宗立派、威风八面，现在的科学家大概只有高山仰止的份了。但学术的传承有好几千年，牛顿到现在也有三四百年了，而计算机的历史到今天满打满算也不过六十一年，居然就到了这份上，可见其发展之快。

　　那时的操作系统跟我们现在所看到的其实大相径庭，当时只是把它称作Batch System，它的功能也非常单一，仅仅是把一些常用的操作指令进行了封装以供程序调用，甚至都谈不上用户界面。

　　但就在这个时代，有一个特别值得一提的操作系统已经开始酝酿，就是大名鼎鼎的OS/360。
　　
　　这款操作系统出自蓝色巨人——IBM(国际商用机器公司)之手，IBM在电脑史上的地位堪称泰山北斗，甚至有专家说过，“电脑的历史就是IBM的历史”。而“360系统”堪称IBM历史上最重要的项目之一。
　　
　　在61年年底，IBM开始打算实施“360系统电子计算机计划”，据当时的估算，整个计划投资约需50亿美元（这可是在60年代初，十几年前的“曼哈顿工程”才花了20亿），这是不折不扣的大手笔，要知道，当时IBM的年营业额还不到这个数字。
　　
　　之所以如此花钱，是因为这项计划要做一些以前没人做过的事，这将是一个通用的系统（360就是360度的意思，表示该系统全面的应用范围），该系列不同型号的计算机将能享用同样的设备，如磁带机、打印机等，能使用同样的软件，并且可以相互连接，一起工作，这些在今天看来理所当然的事，在当时可是闻所未闻。

　　（未完，由于篇幅的关系，请点击下面的链接查看全文。）

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转载自http://tieba.baidu.com/f?kz=143267281
同转载自Yat-sen Channel

003.linux链接文件

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 10:27:28 GMT

　　链接文件有点类似于Windows 的所谓快捷方式，但并不完全一样。链接有两种方式，软链接和硬链接。
　　软链接文件
　　软链接又叫符号链接，这个文件包含了另一个文件的路径名。可以是任意文件或目录，可以链接不同文件系统的文件。链接文件甚至可以链接不存在的文件，这就产生一般称之为"断链"的问题(或曰“现象")，链接文件甚至可以循环链接自己。类似于编程语言中的递归。
　　[yaoyao@linux236 yaoyao]$ ls -l
　　total 0
　　lrwxrwxrwx　1 yaoyao　yaoyao　　5 Aug 6 17:39 1.txt -> 3.txt
　　lrwxrwxrwx　1 yaoyao　yaoyao　　5 Aug 6 17:38 2.txt -> 1.txt
　　lrwxrwxrwx　1 yaoyao　yaoyao　　5 Aug 6 17:39 3.txt -> 2.txt
　　上面的三个文件形成了一个递归，实质上没有任何作用。系统管理员应该避免系统出现断链或循环链接。
　　用ln -s 命令可以生成一个软连接，如下:
　　[root@linux236 test]# ln -s source_file softlink_file
　　在对符号文件进行读或写操作的时候，系统会自动把该操作转换为对源文件的操作，但删除链接文件时，系统仅仅删除链接文件，而不删除源文件本身。
　　硬链接文件
　　info ln 命令告诉您，硬链接是已存在文件的另一个名字(A "hard link" is another name for an existing file)，这多少有些令人困惑。硬连接的命令是
　　ln -d existfile newfile
　　硬链接文件有两个限制
　　1、不允许给目录创建硬链接；
　　2、只有在同一文件系统中的文件之间才能创建链接。
　　对硬链接文件进行读写和删除操作时候，结果和软链接相同。但如果我们删除硬链接文件的源文件，硬链接文件仍然存在，而且保留了愿有的内容。这时，系统就“忘记”了它曾经是硬链接文件。而把他当成一个普通文件。
　　- - -
　　转载自http://blog.chinaunix.net/u1/43550/showart_373010.html

002.linux系统命令配置文件

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 10:16:11 GMT

linux系统命令配置文件
　　/etc/lilo.conf 包含系统的缺省引导命令行参数，还有启动时使用的不同映象。您在 LILO 引导提示的时候按 Tab 键就可以看到这个列表。
　　/etc/logrotate.conf 维护 /var/log 目录中的日志文件。
　　/etc/identd.conf identd是一个超级服务器，这个文件对于的是它的配置文件。
　　/etc/ld.so.conf “动态链接程序”（Dynamic Linker）的配置。
　　/etc/inittab 按年代来讲，这是 UNIX 中第一个配置文件。在一台 UNIX 机器打开之后启动的第一个程序是 init，它知道该启动什么，这是由于 inittab 的存在。在运行级别改变时，init 读取 inittab，然后控制主进程的启动。

linux主机配置文件
　　/etc/host.conf---------告诉域名服务器如何查找主机名
　　/etc/hosts---------网络中已发现的主机的名称列表，用于解析主机名

　　- - -
　　转载自http://blog.chinaunix.net/u1/43550/showart_373007.html

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!　　　　　　　　　　思想有多远，我们就能走多远　　　　　　　　　　!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

001.ModelAbout

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 10:11:44 GMT

　　数值预报已经成为大气科学的一个发展方向，她不仅引领了一个潮流，更代表了研究的未来。
　　数值预报模式是一个工具，但也是一门学问。
　　模式关系到很多方面，为了更好的研究，特开设此专栏。

　　!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
　　!　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　START 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　!
　　!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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　　HUANG Dazhen
　　2009.11.01

I promise myself

379128604@qq.com(Leo) — Tue, 20 Oct 2009 08:48:02 GMT

The Secret
I promise myself
To be so strong that nothing can disturb my peace of mind.
To talk health, happiness, and prosperity to every person I meet.
To make all my friends feel that there is something worthwhile in them.
To look at the sunny side of everything and make my optimism come true.
To think only of the best, to work only the best

and to expect only the best
To be just as enthusiastic about the success of

others as I am about my own.
To forget the mistakes of the past and press on to the

greater achievements of the future.
To wear a cheerful expression at all times and give a smile

to every living creature I meet.
To give so much time to improving myself that I

have no time to criticize others.
To be too large for worry, too noble for anger, too strong for fear,

and too happy to permit the presence of trouble.
To think well of myself and to proclaimthis fact to the world,

not in loud word, but in great deeds.
To live in the faith that the whole world is on my side,

so long as I an true to the best that is in me.
By CHRISTIAN D.LARSON